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What Was The Impact Of European And American Settlers On California's Indigenous Plants And Animals?

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Widespread killing of Indians (1846–1873)

For the conflicts during the settling of California by the United States, run into California Indian Wars. For the system of forced labor for indigenous people during the California Genocide, meet Forced labor in California.

California genocide
Part of the California Indian Wars
"Protecting The Settlers" Illustration by JR Browne for his work "The Indians Of California" 1864.jpg

"Protecting The Settlers", illustration by J. R. Browne for his work The Indians Of California, 1864
Location California
Date 1846–1873
Target Indigenous Californians

Attack type

 Genocide, ethnic cleansing, human hunting, slavery, rape, Indian removal
Deaths 9,492 to 16,094 (Madley)[one]
Other estimates: 4,500[2]–100,000[three]
Injured 10,000[4] to 27,000[5] taken every bit forced laborers by white settlers; 4,000 to 7,000 of them children.[five]
Perpetrators United states of america Army, California Land Militia, American settlers, settlers of Mexican, Spanish and other European descent

The California genocide was the killing of thousands of indigenous peoples of California by United States government agents and private citizens in the 19th century. It began following the American Conquest of California from United mexican states, and the influx of settlers due to the California Gold Blitz, which accelerated the refuse of the indigenous population of California. Betwixt 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that non-Indians killed between 9,492 and 16,094 California Natives. Hundreds to thousands were additionally starved or worked to death.[1] Acts of enslavement, kidnapping, rape, child separation and displacement were widespread. These acts were encouraged, tolerated, and carried out by state regime and militias.[six]

The 1925 volume Handbook of the Indians of California estimated that the ethnic population of California decreased from perhaps equally many equally 150,000 in 1848 to thirty,000 in 1870 and brutal further to 16,000 in 1900. The decline was acquired by disease, low birth rates, starvation, killings, and massacres. California Natives, peculiarly during the Gold Rush, were targeted in killings.[vii] [viii] [9] Between 10,000[4] and 27,000[5] were also taken as forced labor past settlers. The state of California used its institutions to favor white settlers' rights over indigenous rights, dispossessing natives.[ten]

Since the 2000s several American academics and activist organizations, both Native American and European American, accept characterized the flow immediately post-obit the U.S. Conquest of California as one in which the state and federal governments waged genocide against the Native Americans in the territory. In 2019, California's governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide and chosen for a research grouping to exist formed to better understand the topic and inform future generations.

Background [edit]

Indigenous peoples [edit]

Indigenous indigenous and (inset) linguistic groups of California prior to European arrival

Prior to Spanish arrival, California was home to an indigenous population thought to accept been as loftier as 300,000.[11] The largest group were the Chumash people, with a population around 10,000.[12] The region was highly diverse, with numerous distinct languages spoken. While there was nifty diverseness in the expanse, archeological findings show picayune show of intertribal conflicts.[9]

The various tribal groups appear to have adjusted to particular areas and territories. According to journalist Nathan Gilles, considering of traditions skilful by the Native people of Northern California, they were able to "manage the threat of wildfires and cultivate traditional plants".[13] For example, traditional apply of fire by the California and Pacific Northwest Tribes, allowed them to "cultivate plants and fungi" that "adjusted to regular burning. The listing runs from fiber sources, such as conduct-grass and willow, to foodstuffs, such as berries, mushrooms, and acorns from oak trees that in one case made upwards sprawling orchards".[xiii] Considering of traditional practices of Native Californian tribes, they were able to support habitats and climates that would so support an abundance of wild fauna, including rabbits, deer, varieties of fish, fruit, roots, and acorns. The natives largely followed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, moving around their area through the seasons as dissimilar types of nutrient were available.[14]

The Native people of California, according to sociologist and environmental studies Professor Kari Norgaard, were "hunting and angling for their nutrient, weaving baskets using traditional techniques" and "carrying out important ceremonies to go on the world intact".[xv] It was also recorded that the Ethnic people in California and across the continent had, and keep to, use "fire to enhance specific plant species, optimize hunting conditions, maintain open up travel routes, and generally support the flourishing of the species upon which they depend, according to scholars [16] similar the United states of america Forest Service ecologist and Karuk descendent Frank Lake".[fifteen]

Contact [edit]

California was one of the last regions in the Americas to be colonized. Catholic Spanish missionaries, led by Franciscan ambassador Junípero Serra and military forces under the command of Gaspar de Portolá, did not reach this area until 1769. The mission was intended to spread the Catholic faith among the region'southward Native peoples and institute and expand the achieve of the Spanish Empire.[fourteen] The Spanish built San Diego de Alcalá, the offset of 21 missions, at what developed as present-day San Diego in the southern function of the country along the Pacific. Military outposts were constructed alongside the missions to house the soldiers sent to protect the missionaries.[ citation needed ]

Spanish and Mexican dominion were devastating for native populations. "Equally the missions grew, California'south native population of Indians began a catastrophic decline."[17] Gregory Orfalea estimates that pre-contact population was reduced by 33% during the Spanish and Mexican regimes. Most of the decline stemmed from imported diseases, low nascency rates, and the disruption of traditional means of life, but violence was mutual, and some historians have charged that life in the missions was close to slavery.[eight] [18] However, co-ordinate to George Tinker, a Native scholar, "The Native American population of coastal population was reduced past some 90 percent during lxx years under the sole proprietorship of Serra's mission system".[19]

According to journalist Ed Castillo, Serra spread the Christian faith among the Native population in a subversive manner that caused their population to reject rapidly while he was in power. Castillo writes that "The Franciscans took it upon themselves to brutalize the Indians, and to rejoice in their death...They only wanted the souls of these Indians, so they baptized them, and when they died, from disease or beatings... they were going to sky, which was a cause of celebration".[14] According to Castillo, the Native American population were forced to carelessness their "sustainable and complex civilization" as well as "their beliefs, their religion, and their manner of life".[14]

Response post-obit statehood [edit]

Post-obit the American Conquest of California from Mexico, and the influx of settlers due to the California Golden Rush in 1849, California state and federal authorities incited, aided, and financed the violence against the Native Americans. The California Natives were also sometimes contemptuously referred to as "Diggers", for their practice of excavation up roots to eat.[20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] On January 6, 1851, at his State of the State address to the California Senate, 1st Governor Peter Burnett said: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result simply with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is across the power or wisdom of man to avert."[27] [28] [29] During the California genocide, reports of the decimation of Native Americans in California were made to the residue of the United States and internationally.[note i]

The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was enacted in 1850 (amended 1860, repealed 1863). This law provided for "apprenticing" or indenturing Indian children to Whites, and also punished "vagrant" Indians by "hiring" them out to the highest bidder at a public sale if the Indian could not provide sufficient bond or bail. This legalized a course of slavery in California.[thirty] White settlers took ten,000 to 27,000 California Native Americans every bit forced laborers, including 4,000 to 7,000 children.[4] [5]

A notable early eyewitness testimony and account: "The Indians of California" (1864) is from John Ross Browne, Customs official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast. He systematically described the fraud, corruption, state theft, slavery, rape, and massacre perpetrated on a substantial portion of the ancient population.[31] [32] This was confirmed past a contemporary, Superintendent Dorcas J. Spencer.[33]

Violence statistics [edit]

In 1943, a study by demographer Sherburne Cook, estimated that there were 4,556 killings of California Indians between 1847 and 1865.[i] [ii] Contemporary historian Benjamin Madley has documented the numbers of Californian Indians killed between 1846 and 1873; he estimates that during this catamenia at to the lowest degree 9,492 to 16,092 Californian Indians were killed by non-Indians, including between ane,680 and 3,741 killed by the U.S. Army. Most of the deaths took place in what he defined as more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). Madley also estimates that fewer than 1,400 non-Indians were killed by Indians during this period.[i] The Native American activist and old Sonoma Country University Professor Ed Castillo was asked by The State of California's Native American Heritage Committee to write the country's official history of the genocide; he wrote that "well-armed decease squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in the death of 100,000 Indians in [1848 and 1849]."[3] Some other contemporary historian, Gary Clayton Anderson, estimates that no more than 2,000 Native Americans were killed in California.[34]

List of recorded massacres [edit]

Year Engagement Proper name Current location Clarification Reported casualties References
1846 April half-dozen Sacramento River massacre Sacramento River in Shasta County, Northern California Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a band of Indians (probably Wintun) on the Sacramento River in California, killing betwixt 120 and 200 Indians. 120–200 [35]
1846 June Sutter Buttes massacre Sutter Buttes in Sutter County, Northern California Helm John C. Frémont'south men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes, killing several Patwin people. 14+ [36]
1846 December Pauma massacre Pauma Valley in San Diego County, Southern California 11 Californios captured at Rancho Pauma were killed as horse thieves by Indians at Warner Springs, California, leading to the Temecula massacre. eleven (settlers) [37]
1846 December Temecula massacre Temecula in Riverside County, Southern California 33 to xl Luiseño Indians killed in an ambush in revenge for the Pauma Massacre east of Temecula, California. 33–twoscore [37]
1847 March Rancheria Tulea massacre Napa Valley in Napa County, Northern California White slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring v Indians in Rancheria Tulea. v [36]
1847 March 29 Kern and Sutter massacres Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California In response to a plea from White settlers to put an end to raids, U.S. Army Helm Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages. 20 [36]
1847 tardily June/early on July Konkow Maidu slaver massacre Chico in Butte Canton, Northern California Slavers kill 12–twenty Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery. 12–twenty [36]
1850 May 15 Bloody Island massacre Clear Lake in Lake County, Northern California Nathaniel Lyon and his U.S. Army detachment of cavalry killed sixty–100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti isle near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California); they believed the Pomo had killed two Articulate Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo.) This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. The site is now California Registered Historical Landmark #427. threescore–100 [38] [39] [40]
1851 January 11 Mariposa War Diverse sites in Mariposa County, Northern California The gilt rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California, because miners forced Native Americans off their gilded-rich lands. Many were pressed into service in the mines; others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer militia. Some Native American tribes fought back, get-go with the Ahwahnechees and the Chowchilla in the Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley leading a raid on the Fresno River post of James D. Savage, in December 1850. In retaliation Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January xi, 1851, on a mountainside near present-solar day Oakhurst, California. 40+
1851 Old Shasta Boondocks Massacre Shasta in Shasta County, Northern California Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned downward their tribal council coming together house. 300 [41]
1852 April 23 Bridge Gulch massacre Hayfork Creek in Trinity County, Northern California 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson. 150 [42]
1853 Howonquet massacre Smith River in Del Norte Canton, Northern California Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people. lxx [43]
1853 Yontoket Massacre Yontocket in Del Norte County, Northern California A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer anniversary. 450 [44] [45]
1853 Achulet Massacre Lake Earl in Del Norte County, Northern California White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn. 65–150 [46]
1853 Before Dec 31 "Ox" incident Visalia in Tulare County, Central Valley U.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers every bit "our niggling difficulty" and "the chastisement they accept received". [47]
1855 January 22 Klamath River massacres Klamath River in Del Norte County, Northern California In retaliation for the murder of half dozen settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination confronting the Indians" in Humboldt Canton, California. [48]
1856 March Shingletown Shingleton in Shasta County, Northern Californoa In reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women, and children near Shingletown, California. 20 [49]
1856–1859 Round Valley Settler Massacres Circular Valley in Mendocino County, Northern California White settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the class of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres. 1,000+ [fifty] [51]
1859–1860 Mendocino War Diverse sites in Mendocino Canton, Northern California White settlers calling themselves the "Eel River Rangers", led past Walter Jarboe, killed at least 283 Indian men and endless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months. They were reimbursed past the U.Southward. authorities for their campaign. 283+ [50]
1859 September Pit River Pit River in Northern California White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their hamlet on the Pit River in California. lxx [52]
1859 Chico Creek Big Chico Creek in Butte County, Northern California White settlers attacked a Maidu camp nigh Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately forty Indians. 40 [53]
1860 Exact date unknown Massacre at Bloody Rock Mendocino National Wood in Mendocino County, Northern California A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Encarmine Rock, in Mendocino Canton, California. 65 [54]
1860 February 26 1860 Wiyot massacre Tuluwat Isle in Humboldt County, Northern California In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California, white settlers killed betwixt eighty and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children, and elders, equally reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages were massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208. lxxx–250 [55] [56] [57] [58]
1863 April 19 Keyesville massacre Keyesville in Kern County, Primal Valley American militia and members of the California Volunteers cavalry killed 35 Tübatulabal men in Kern Canton, California. 35 [59]
1863 August 28 Konkow Trail of Tears Chico in Butte County to Covelo in Mendocino County, Northern California In Baronial 1863 all Konkow Maidu were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico then exist taken to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the expanse were to be shot. Maidu were rounded upwardly and marched nether guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished.[60] They reached the Circular Valley on September eighteen, 1863. 184 [60]
1864 Oak Run massacre Oak Run in Shasta Canton, Northern California California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered well-nigh the head of Oak Run, California, for a spiritual anniversary. 300 [61]
1865 Owens Lake massacre Owens Lake in Inyo County, Northern California To avenge the killing of a adult female and kid at Haiwai Meadows, White vigilantes attacked a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California, killing about 40 men, women, and children. xl [62]
1865 Iii Knolls massacre Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California White settlers massacred a Yana customs at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California. [63]
1868 Campo Seco Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California. 33 [64] [65]
1871 Kingsley Cave massacre Ishi Wilderness in Tehama County, Northern California four settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left merely 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive. 30 [66]

Population decline [edit]

Estimated native California population based on Handbook of the Indians of California (1925) (Melt 1978)

Groups Population by twelvemonth
All minimum sources below cite: [12] [ unreliable source? ]
1770 1910
Yurok 2,500
(up to 3,100[67]) 		700
Karok 1,500
(up to 2,000 to ii,700[68] [69] ) 		800
Wiyot 1,000 100
Tolowa 1,000 150
Hupa one,000 500
Chilula, Whilkut 1,000 (*)
Mattole 500
(up to 2,476[lxx]) 		(*)
Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik 2,000
(up to seven,957[70]) 		100
Wailaki 1,000
(up to two,760[seventy]) 		200
Kato 500
(upwards to ane,100[67]) 		(*)
Yuki 2,000
(upwardly to 6,000 to twenty,000[71]) 		100
Huchnom 500 (*)
Declension Yuki 500 (*)
Wappo 1,000
(up to 1,650[72]) 		(*)
Pomo 8,000
(up to 10,000[73] to 18,000[73]) 		1,200
Lake Miwok 500 (*)
Coast Miwok one,500 (*)
Shasta 2,000
(up to 5,600[74] to 10,000[75]) 		100
Chimariko, New River, Konomihu, Oakwanuchu 1,000 (*)
Achomawi, Atsugawi 3,000 1,100
Modoc in California 500 (*)
Yana/Yahi i,500 (*)
Wintun 12,000 1,000
Maidu nine,000
(upward to 9,500[76]) 		1,100
Miwok (Plains and Sierra) 9,000 700
Yokuts 18,000
(up to 70,000[77]) 		600
Costanoan 7,000
(up 10,000[78] to 26,000 combined with Salinan[79]) 		(*)
Esselen 500 (*)
Salinan three,000 (*)
Chumash 10,000
(upwards to xiii,650[fourscore] to 20,400[80] [81]) 		(*)
Washo in California 500 300
Northern Paiute in California 500 300
Eastern and Western Mono iv,000 one,500
Tübatulabal i,000 150
Koso, Chemehuevi, Kawaiisu 1,500 500
Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, Alliklik 3,500 150
Gabrielino, Fernandeño, San Nicoleño 5,000 (*)
Luiseño 4,000
(up to ten,000[82]) 		500
Juaneño ane,000
(up iii,340[83]) 		(*)
Cupeño 500
(up to 750[84]) 		150
Cahuilla 2,500
(up to 6,000[85] to 15,000[85]) 		800
Diegueño, Kamia 3,000
(upward to 6,000[86] to 19,000[87]) 		800
Mohave (total) three,000 one,050
Halchidhoma (emigrated since 1800) 1,000
(upwardly to 2,500[88]) 		........
Yuma (Full) 2,500 750
Total of groups marked (*) .......... 450
15,850
Less river Yumans in Arizona 3,000
(upward to 4,000[89]) 		850
Non-Californian Indians now in California .......... 350
Affiliation doubtful or non reported .......... 1,000
Total 133,000
(up to 230,407 to 301,233) 		16,350

Legacy [edit]

State theft and value [edit]

According to Chiliad. Kat Anderson, an ecologist and lecturer at University of California, Davis, and Jon Keeley, a fire ecologist and research scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, after decades of existence disconnected from the state and their civilisation, due to Spanish and U.S. colonial violence, Native peoples are slowly starting to be able to practice traditions that enhance the surroundings effectually them, by straight taking care of the country. Anderson and Keeley write, "The outcomes that indigenous people were aiming for when burning chaparral, such as increased water menstruum, enhanced wildlife habitat, and the maintenance of many kinds of flowering plants and animals, are congruent and dovetail with the values that public land agencies, non-profit organizations, and private landowners wish to preserve and enhance through wildland management".[xc] Through these returned practices, they are able to commit and practice their culture, while besides helping the other people in the area that volition do good from the ecological differences.

Call for tribunals [edit]

Native American scholar Gerald Vizenor has argued in the early on 21st century for universities to be authorized to gather tribunals to investigate these events. He notes that United States federal law contains no statute of limitations on war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide. He says:

Genocide tribunals would provide venues of judicial reason and disinterestedness that reveal continental ethnic cleansing, mass murder, torture, and religious persecution, past and present, and would justly expose, in the context of legal contest for evidence, the inciters, falsifiers, and deniers of genocide and state crimes against Native American Indians. Genocide tribunals would surely enhance the moot court programs in law schools and provide more serious consideration of homo rights and international criminal cases past substantive testimony, motivated historical depositions, documentary evidence, contentious narratives, and ethical accountability.[91]

Vizenor believes that, in accordance with international constabulary, the universities of South Dakota, Minnesota, and California Berkeley ought to institute tribunals to hear show and adjudicate crimes against humanity alleged to take taken identify in their individual states.[92] Chaser Lindsay Glauner has also argued for such tribunals.[93]

Apologies and name changes [edit]

In a speech earlier representatives of Native American peoples in June, 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That'due south what it was, a genocide. No other manner to describe it. And that's the way information technology needs to be described in the history books."[94] After hearing testimony, a Truth and Healing Council will analyze the historical record on the relationship betwixt the country and California Native Americans.[95]

In Nov 2021, the Lath of Directors of the University of California Hastings Higher of Law voted to alter the proper noun of the institution considering of namesake Due south. C. Hastings' involvement in the killing and dispossessing of Yuki people in the 1850s.[96] [97]

Academic contend on terminology [edit]

According to Benjamin Mountford and Stephen Tuffnell, in that location is vigorous debate over the scale of Native American losses later the discovery of aureate in California and whether to characterize them equally genocide.[98] Some scholars and historians dispute the accuracy of the term "genocide" to describe what occurred in California, as well as the blame which has been placed direct on the Usa government.[34] [99] One of the most prominent historians espousing such a view is Gary Clayton Anderson,[100] a professor in the Academy of Oklahoma, who describes the events in California equally "ethnic cleansing".[34] [101] He states that "If we get to the signal where the mass murder of fifty Indians in California is considered genocide, then genocide has no more meaning".[34] Other historians who turn down the term "genocide" include William Henry Hutchinson, who claims that "the record of history disproves these charges [of genocide]" and Tom Henry Watkins who states that "it is a poor utilize of the term" since the killings weren't systematic or planned.[102] [103]

Come across also [edit]

  • California Indian Wars
  • California mission clash of cultures
  • Genocide of indigenous peoples
  • List of Indian massacres
  • Trail of Tears
  • Long Walk of the Navajo
  • 1837 Keen Plains smallpox epidemic
  • Comanche entrada
  • Yavapai Wars
  • Northern Cheyenne Exodus

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Ancient Americans. Quote: "Dr. MacGowan, in a lecture delivered at New York, estimated the present number of Indians in the United states of america to exist about 250,000, and said that unless something prevented the oppression and cruelty of the white man, these people would gradually become reduced, and finally extinct. He predicted the total extermination of the Digger Indians of California and the tribes of other states within ten years, if something were not done for their relief. The lecturer concluded past strongly urging the institution of a Protective Aborigines Gild, something similar to the club in England to preclude cruelty to animals. By this means he thought the condition of the Indian might exist improved and the race longer perpetuated." The British Medical Periodical, Vol. 1, No. 274 (March 31, 1866), p. 350

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ a b c d Madley, Benjamin (2016). An American Genocide, The United states of america and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873. Yale University Press. pp. 11, 351. ISBN978-0-300-18136-4.
  2. ^ a b "Minorities During the Gold Rush". California Secretary of Country. Archived from the original on February ane, 2014.
  3. ^ a b Castillo, Edward D. "California Indian History". California Native American Heritage Commission. Archived from the original on June one, 2019.
  4. ^ a b c Pritzker, Barry. 2000, A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Civilisation, and Peoples. Oxford Academy Press, p. 114
  5. ^ a b c d Exchange Squad, The Jefferson. "NorCal Native Writes Of California Genocide". JPR Jefferson Public Radio. Info is in the podcast. Archived from the original on Nov xiv, 2019.
  6. ^ Adhikari, Mohamed (July 25, 2022). Destroying to Supplant: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. pp. 72–115. ISBN978-1647920548.
  7. ^ Madley, Benjamin (2016). An American Genocide: The U.s. and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873.
  8. ^ a b Krell, Dorothy, ed. (1979). The California Missions: A Pictorial History. Menlo Park, California: Sunset Publishing Corporation. p. 316. ISBN0-376-05172-8.
  9. ^ a b "California Genocide". Indian Country Diaries. PBS. September 2006. Archived from the original on May six, 2007.
  10. ^ Lindsay, Brendan C. (2012). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide 1846–1873. U.s.a.: University of Nebraska Press. pp. two, 3. ISBN978-0-8032-6966-8.
  11. ^ "The First Peoples of California | Early on California History: An Overview | Articles and Essays | California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress . Retrieved May 21, 2021.
  12. ^ a b Kroeber, A. L. (1925). Handbook of the Indians of California. United States. Agency of American Ethonology. Message,78. Washington. p. 883. hdl:2027/mdp.39015006584174.
  13. ^ a b "Wildfires Are Essential: The Forest Service Embraces a Tribal Tradition". Yes! Mag . Retrieved December 9, 2021.
  14. ^ a b c d Castillo, Edward. "A Short Overview of California Indian History". Native American Caucus of the California Democratic Party. Retrieved Dec 14, 2015.
  15. ^ a b "Colonization, Burn Suppression, and Indigenous Resurgence in the Face of Climate Change". YES! Magazine . Retrieved December 9, 2021.
  16. ^ Lake, Frank (September 2017). "Returning Fire to the Land: Celebrating Traditional Knowledge and Fire" (PDF). Periodical of Forestry. 115 (five): 343–353. doi:ten.5849/jof.2016-043R2.
  17. ^ Downes, Lawrence (August eighteen, 2015). "Opinion | California's Saint, and a Church building's Sins (Published 2015)". The New York Times.
  18. ^ "Elias Castillo's 'Cross of Thorns' presents a bleak pic of California history". Santa Cruz Sentinel. March 16, 2015.
  19. ^ Tinker, George East. (Jan 1, 1993). Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide. Fortress Press. ISBN978-1-4514-0840-9.
  20. ^ Coffer, William E. (1977). "Genocide of the California Indians, with a Comparative Report of Other Minorities". The Indian Historian. San Francisco, CA. x (ii): 8–15. PMID 11614644.
  21. ^ Norton, Jack. Genocide in Northwestern California: 'When our worlds cried'. Indian Historian Press, 1979.
  22. ^ Lynwood, Carranco; Bristles, Estle (1981). Genocide and Vendetta: The Round Valley Wars of Northern California. University of Oklahoma Press.
  23. ^ Lindsay, Brendan C. (2012). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873. University of Nebraska Press.
  24. ^ Johnston-Dodds, Kimberly (2002). Early California Laws and Policies Related to California Indians (PDF). Sacramento, California: California State Library, California Research Bureau. ISBN1-58703-163-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2014. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
  25. ^ Trafzer, Clifford Due east.; Lorimer, Michelle (2014). "Silencing California Indian Genocide in Social Studies Texts". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1): 64–82. doi:10.1177/0002764213495032. S2CID 144356070.
  26. ^ Madley, Benjamin (May 22, 2016). "Op-Ed: It's fourth dimension to admit the genocide of California's Indians". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved Baronial thirty, 2019.
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References [edit]

  • Chapman, Charles East. (1921). A History of California; The Castilian Period. New York: The MacMillan Company.
  • Engelhardt, Zephyrin (1922). San Juan Capistrano Mission. Los Angeles, California: Standard Printing Co.
  • Heizer, Robert F. (1993). The Devastation of California Indians. Lincoln and London: Academy of Nebraska Printing. ISBN978-0-8032-7262-0.
  • Hinton, Alexander Laban; Woolford, Andrew; Benvenuto, Jeff, eds. (2014). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770.
  • Kelsey, Harry (1993). Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History. Altadena, California: Interdisciplinary Research, Inc. ISBN978-0-9785881-0-6.
  • Luomala, Katharine (1978). "Tipai-Ipai". In Heizer, Robert F. (ed.). Handbook of Due north American Indians. Vol. 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Establishment. pp. 592–609. ISBN978-0-16004-574-v.
  • Madley, Benjamin (2012). "The Genocide of California's Yana Indians". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, Williams South. (eds.). Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. pp. 16–53. ISBN978-0-415871-921.
  • Michno, Gregory F. (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850–1890. Mountain Press Publishing Co. ISBN978-0-87842-468-9.
  • Norton, Jack (1979). Genocide in Northwestern California : when our worlds cried. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. ISBN0-913436-26-2. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
  • Paddison, Joshua, ed. (1999). A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Earlier the Golden Rush . Berkeley, California: Heyday Books. ISBN978-ane-890771-xiii-iii.
  • Ruscin, Terry (1999). Mission Memoirs. San Diego, California: Sunbelt Publications. ISBN978-0-932653-30-vii.
  • Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (2003). Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-0-631-22349-8.
  • Shipek, Florence C. (1986). "The Impact of Europeans upon Kumeyaay Culture". In Starr, Raymond (ed.). The Impact of European Exploration and Settlement on Local Native Americans. San Diego: Cabrillo Historical Clan. pp. 13–25. OCLC 17346424.
  • Thornton, Russell (1990). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Norman.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_genocide

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